Introduction

Sufism, or Taṣawwuf, is the mystical and esoteric aspect of Islam, aiming to transcend the physical and transient world in pursuit of Divine knowledge. It involves a continuous process of discovering and realizing spiritual truths within oneself, with the ultimate goal of establishing a direct, unmediated connection with God, the Absolute Reality (al-Ḥaqq). This spiritual journey is complex, beginning with self-exploration followed by awareness of the universe, leading the seeker (Sālik) to comprehend the Divine only through the Divine (see also Trimingham (1971). Ohlander (2011) and Knysh, A. (2018) for discussions on Sufism). The path involves a transformation from external distractions to internal introspection, from the transient dissolution (fanā) to the eternal subsistence (baqāʾ). A key component of this journey is a shift in perception, bridging the finite and infinite, the visible and ineffable.

Specific practices, such as Samāʿ, a ritual combining music, sound, and movement, serve as pathways to higher consciousness, offering glimpses of Divine Reality. This article explores the paradox of sensory perception in Sufism, where the senses both veil and also reveal the truth. It examines how this paradox shapes the seeker’s path to self-awareness. Additionally, the article introduces a medieval Persian manuscript, Or. 846, exploring the etiquette and teachings of Sufism. The study aims to deepen contemporary understanding of sensory perceptions in such traditions, with relevance for the modern world.

The Sufi Perception of the World: A Journey Beyond the Veil

In Sufism, the material world (Dunyā) is perceived as a veil obscuring the ultimate Reality (al-Ḥaqq), with all existence emanating from the Divine (Tawhīd) (for discussions on Sufism, see also Ohlander (2011), Knysh (2018) amongst others). The seeker’s task is to purify the heart, transcending ego and distractions to perceive this unity, a knowledge (maʿrifa) granted only through the Divine. Sufi poets, such as Rumi (d. 1273) and Hafez (Ḥāfiẓ, ca. 1315-1390), reflect this struggle, portraying the world not to be rejected but understood as a mirror of Divine unity.

“Until you awaken to Truth's embrace, the secret whispers beyond the veil will elude your ear;

For the uninitiated, the sacred message of the Celestial Messenger remains a distant echo.

Hear me, O child, and unburden your heart, grieve not for this fleeting world.

I have placed within your grasp a luminous pearl of wisdom, May your soul have the depth to grasp its light.”

In his poem, Hafez explores the Sufi themes of spiritual receptivity and detachment from worldly attachments. He contrasts the spiritually initiated āshnā, whose intimacy with the Divine grants access to truth, with the ‘nā-mahram ear,’ unpurified medium of perception, incapacitated to perceive the sacred message. The metaphor of the parde (veil) represents the mystical barrier between the mundane and the divine, accessible only through esoteric insight. In the second line, Hafez’s paternal tone urges the abandonment of material pursuits in favor of the eternal Truth. Samāʿ with its rhythmic sounds, chanting, and whirling, is one of the practices which facilitate a state of ecstasy (Wajd), dissolving perceptual barriers and revealing the Truth. As Sanāī (ca. 1087/1130) also puts it:

“The wise man, with his soul, embraces Samāʿ (an auditory experience)
His words and vessel, all then bid farewell”

Samāʿ: The Dance of Devotion

Samāʿ, derived from the Arabic root “to listen,” is a form of auditory perception, an experience which is not merely a performance but a sacred act of perceiving through hearing, enabling the soul to respond to the Divine. Associated with the Mevlevi Order and their whirling dervishes, Samāʿ facilitates a state of ecstasy (Wajd), bridging the mundane and the transcendent. Rumi’s own experience with auditory perception, triggered by the rhythmic sound of a goldsmith’s hammer, exemplifies the transformative power of Samāʿ. Samāʿ, therefore, for a Sufi can bring a profound, spiritual state of emotional or mystical transcendence through listening at the right place and time, and in the right company (see Lewisohn (1997) for a discussion on these criteria). While sparking contentious debates about its legitimacy within Islamic practices, sensory experiences like Samāʿ play a significant role in the Sufi worldview, balancing the paradox of maintaining a veil between the seeker and the Divine while offering ways to transcend this barrier. This dynamic supports broader Sufi concepts of love, self-annihilation (fanā), subsistence (baqāʾ), and unity.

Similar to the quote above by Hafez, ʿAṭṭār (ca. 1145-1221), a Persian speaking Sufi poet, also describes Samāʿ as a practice of enunciation of worldly pursuits:

“Within the circle of Samāʿ, an ocean of celestial states,
Its fire consumes all restlessness—no hearts falter here!
In the sacred dance, in Samāʿ, dissolved in existance,
In the yearning for the Beloved, no hearts are as fleeting as specks.”

In these lines, ʿAṭṭār employs Sufi imagery to depict spiritual union and self-annihilation in divine ecstasy. The "circle of Samāʿ" is a sacred space where seekers engage in music, dance, and devotion, transcending auditory perception to move beyond the material world. In other words, Samāʿ represents emotional and spiritual depth, where the heart, the seat of divine knowledge (maʿrifa), seeks communion with the Divine. Ātash-e Samāʿ, the fire of Samāʿ, symbolises passionate longing for the Beloved, facilitating the process of fanā (ego dissolution) and baqāʾ (eternal devotion).

In the context of Sufi philosophy, Samāʿ is argued to mainly symbolise:

• Unity in Motion: The circular whirling reflects the cosmic motion of creation and unity, echoing the idea of God as the centre of all existence.
• The Journey Inward: Through deep listening and movement, the seeker turns inward, leaving behind worldly attachments and egoic thoughts.
• Love and Ecstasy: Samāʿ embodies the Sufi notion of divine love (Ishq) and the ecstatic longing for the Beloved.

MS Or. 846, A Medieval Persian Manuscript

The manuscript Ṣifāt al-Jamʿīyāt fī Bayān al-Ṭarīqa is a medieval Persian work completed on 27 Shawwal, 883 A.H. (21 January 1479). It consists of 244 folios, bound in light brown leather, with folio dimensions of approximately 20.3cm by 14.5cm. The scribe, Amīn al-Dīn Muhammad Samarrqandī, compiled the work in Constantinople (as indicated in the colophon), based on the teachings of Lābīd ibn Khājaki Tabrīzī. The manuscript contains fifty-eight sections, covering a range of topics such as "The Cloak of Blessing," "The Path (Ṭarīqa) and Truth (Ḥaqīqa)," and "The Cloak of Devotion;” for a full list of the titles, see pages 47-49 in de Goeje (1873). To my knowledge, the manuscript has not been published or edited to this date, making it a rare and valuable resource for Sufi scholars. I came across the manuscript while researching Persian manuscripts in the Special Collections of Leiden University, where the manuscript is held. It seems to be the only known copy of the work, athough it is very likely that other copies may have existed. This article, therefore, marks the first academic edition, translation and discussion of part of its content, focusing on the manuscript's exploration of Samāʿ and its emphasis on sincerity, reverence, and spiritual readiness.

The forty-sevenths section of the manuscript is dedicated to Samāʿ. It starts with the description of an incident of Samāʿ:

“Abu al-Wāsiʿ Musilī (may Allah be pleased with him) recalls “one day, we were sitting in the company of the prophet [of Islam] when a group of dervishes arrived at the outskirts of Tāʾif and joined us in the gathering. The prophet spoke with words of wisdom, giving advice ... the prophet said, "play something with your ney." The dervish, responding to his request, played the ney, and a spiritual ecstasy (wajd) and state (ḥāl) descended upon the prophet. He stood up, raised his hands and spun around, and then returned to his seat and settled down.”

And then the scribe goes on citing Muḥammad, the Prophet of Islam, regarding the historical basis of Samāʿ:

Complete translation of the passage: “After a while, the companions asked, "O Messenger of Allah, what is the meaning of Samāʿ? And why is it called Samāʿ?" The prophet responded, "This is called Samāʿ because it involves listening. The first instance of this listening occurred when the soul had not yet entered the body of Adam. Before that time, no one had witnessed such a phenomenon. Allah, the Exalted, then commanded the angels who were around the Divine realm to gather and descend upon Adam. They gathered and sat above his head, singing a melody, and they said, 'Just as the soul enters the body of Adam with difficulty, when it exits, it will also exit with difficulty.' The song of the angels of the Throne reached the ears of the angels of the seven heavens, and they all gathered to listen. Through this divine melody, Allah, the Mighty and Majestic, created a state of spiritual ecstasy and intoxication that spread throughout the angels of the seven heavens. They began to move in circles, as they were filled with spiritual excitement, for by the command of Allah, the soul was to enter the body of Adam. No created being knew how the soul would enter or leave the body. All that could be said is that the soul leaves the body. This is called Samāʿ,' which is a collective term for what the angels heard. It is known to the angels of the Divine realm, but no one can truly comprehend this except someone who has spent many years in the service of spiritual humility (ahl al-faqr) and the wayfarers on the path of God, striving alongside them, until they have received knowledge of this meaning."

The cited passage reaffirms the widespread Islamic scholarly view that links the ecstasy experienced in the practice of Samāʿ can be traced back to creation, namely to Rūz-e Alast, when creations had a covenant with God. While this connection is usually made by classic Islamic scolars (see for instance, Al-Ghazali’s prespective on this), various interpretations of this resonance exist.

Returning to our quote from the manuscript, it illustrates that for the devotee, Samāʿ transcends a mere physical movement, serving as a manifestation of the soul's harmony with the universe's inherent rhythms. The entire cosmos, from the planetary orbits to the movements of subatomic particles, is engaged in a constant, divine dance of order and flow.

Life itself mirrors this cosmic dance, and the lover [of Divine] participates in it as a sacred act, recognising it as both an expression of devotion and a means to connect with the Reality.

Deciphering the term Samāʿ

As for the word Samāʿ, the scribe uses an acrostic-like system, breaking it into letters S, M, A, ʿ, each decoding an element of this practice (note that the second character in Samāʿ, namely /a/ is a short vowel and is not represented in Persian or Arabic as a letter but only as a symbol):

The first letter Sin /S/:

“The letter ‘S’ represents the Sage of the self through the journey of existence. Whoever speaks of (spiritual) humility must first seek within their own existence, recognize their own self, and only then will they come to know God.”

The second letter Mim /M/:

“And the next letter is ‘Mīm.’ The dervish must recognise his station- why he came into this world, and for what purpose he shall return. What has he gained in this journey? If he has come to trade, yet has not diminished his capital, he has gained nothing… and this trade, on this path, can only be successfully undertaken by one who has journeyed through it many times and is aware of the dangers along the way. If one travels without a guide, they will fall into the hands of the highwayman of error and destruction. Their essence will be lost, and no profit will come from their journey.”

The third letter Alef /ā/:

The next letter is ‘A’. It is imperative that the dervish, in their adherence to the path of faqr (spiritual poverty), must distinguish themselves from all things other than the Divine, such that nothing obstructs their way except the guidance of God Almighty. This means they must be free from deceit and distance themselves from falsehood, perceiving God in everything they behold. They must progress from the station of ʿilm al-yaqīn (knowledge of certainty) to the station of ayn al-yaqīn (the eye of certainty), whereby their attributes no longer reflect those of creation.

And the fourth letter Ain / ʿ/:

“The next letter is ‘Ain’ and the dervish must, in the realm of Ain [which is both the pronunciation of the letter and also the pronunciation of the Arabic word ain, meaning ‘eye’], see the Truth in whatever they observe. Their vision must be the vision of the Truth itself, recognizing the Truth in all things: in walking, in hearing, and in the creation of all beings—whether elders, mosquitoes, plants, stones, animals.”

“And once one is whirling (in Samāʿ), they avoid all distractions and are at ease, with nothing remaining in their heart except the vision of the Beloved. Wherever they extend their hand, they see God’s presence. Thus, it is clear that this station is universal, without restriction, and there are no limits to it.”

The above passages highlight the significance of undertaking the spiritual journey with a mentor, adhering strictly to the prescribed path. It stresses the value of spiritual discipline, where true knowledge emerges not just from intellectual understanding but through lived experience and the wisdom of an experienced guide. Using the metaphor of trade, it illustrates the al-ʿārif's spiritual growth, with ‘capital’ symbolising spiritual awareness and ‘profit’ representing insights gained. The journey of faqr (spiritual poverty) is emphasised, advocating detachment from worldly distractions and focusing on the Divine, in turn, leading to the transition from ʿilm al-yaqīn (knowledge of certainty) to ʿayn al-yaqīn (eye of certainty), signifying a shift from theoretical to experiential (partial) knowledge of the Reality.

As for the experience of Samāʿ the manuscript presents three stages:

I.

The first station is the general station:
The general station is that in which nothing remains from Samāʿ except its name. The seeker does not know what is happening, moving their hands and feet until they are comforted.

II.

The second station is the specific station:
The specific station is that in which the seeker listens to the voice of the Beloved, and is overcome with ecstasy (Wajd ) and a spiritual state.

III.

The third station is the most specific station:
The most specific station is when, upon hearing the voice of the Beloved, the seeker attains ʿayn al-yaqīn (the eye of certainty) and directly witnesses the vision of the Beloved. In this state, they become like the ney (reed/flute), transcending all of creation.

In line with this, it is noteworthy to mention the Ney in Ney Nāmeh, constituting the opening poem of the first book of the Masnavi by Rumi. In this profound allegory, the human soul is symbolised as a reed (ney), its melancholic and plaintive music serving as an expression of the soul's deep yearning for its primordial origin. The sorrowful sound emanating from the reed is a metaphor for the soul's longing to reunite with the source from which it was severed—its ultimate destination, a return to divine unity and wholeness). In fact, this could be regarded as one of the ultimate states of ecstasy (Wajd).

Why sensory experiences, such as Samāʿ, matter

In a world increasingly fragmented by material concerns and external conflicts, there seems to be a timeless message of unity, love, and inner transformation in Samāʿ, a path which transcends a specific religion. The practice of Samāʿ holds deep relevance as a form of spiritual healing and contemplation.

By engaging with its concept, one can reconnect with a spiritual heritage—a heritage that questions perceived biases, a different image that reminds us of the beauty and interconnectedness of existence. For students of philosophy, Islam, Sufism, and Middle Eastern studies, as well as those with a refined interest in the spiritual and cultural traditions, studying Samāʿ is significant as a sensory experience of the world which can serve as a bridge between the past and present, the inner and outer worlds, and the human and Divine.

According to Rumi:

Samāʿ speaks your praise in a hundred eloquent tongues.
Let me tell you a couple of things from the tongue of Samāʿ.

You transcend both worlds, once you enter into Samāʿ,
For beyond both worlds, this very world becomes itself, Samāʿ.

Though the seventh heaven’s roof is high,
The thing that has surpassed is the ladder of Samāʿ.

Stamp underfoot all that is other than Him [in Samāʿ],
For Samāʿ belongs to you, and you to Samāʿ.

Once love extends its hand to my neck, what shall I do?!
I will bring it to my sides, just as I do in Samāʿ.

As for the aforementioned manuscript, the treasures in the Special Collections (across all universities), including Or.846, provide us with a window into the diverse tapestry of rich cultures, civilisations, religions, etc., specifically the transformative practices prevalent in these cultures that are usually taken for granted. As we study and reflect on these manuscripts, we are reminded that such wisdoms transcend religion, time or place, offering insights that are as relevant today as they were centuries ago. The innate harmony individuals sensory experience for instance in response to music, regardless of age (whether child or elder), gender identity, religious affiliation, or ethnic background, exemplifies a deep-seated propensity for unity. This spontaneous movement, transcending societal divisions, can be seen as an invocation of love and cohesion, licenced through the auditory sense.

Further reading

• de Goeje, J. (1873). Catalogus Codicum Orientalium Bibliothecae Academiae Lugduno-Batavae (vol. 5). Leiden.
• de La Mottraye, A. (1724). Travels throughout Europe, Asia and into Part of Africa with proper CUTTS and MAPS (vol. I). London.
• Knysh, A. (2018). Sufism: A New History of Islamic Mysticism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Lewisohn, L. (1997). The Sacred Music of Islam: Samā’ in the Persian Sufi Tradition. British Journal of
• Ethnomusicology, 6, 1–33.
• Ohlander, E. S. (2011). “Sufism,” in William Edelglass, and Jay L. Garfield (eds), The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy, Oxford Handbooks.
• Trimingham, J Spencer (1971). The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford Clarendon Press.